Wildlife of Spain

CATS OF SPAIN 

August 2008

Cats in general

All the cats of the world are all grouped in the Family Felidae, whether the common and well-loved domestic cat or the charismatic and rare tigers.  Although somewhat different in appearance, dogs and cats (and bears) are all members of the Order Carnivora.  This name derives not from a carnivorous diet but from the arrangement of the teeth.  The living Carnivora stem from common ancestors around 57 million years ago, but today the cats are found in the Family Felidae, part of the “cat branch”, whereas dogs form the Family Canidae, part of the “dog branch”..  The evolutionary descent of cats is still somewhat obscure owing to their relatively recent origin and the lack of earlier fossils, although recent species such as Smilodon (the sabre-toothed cat) are fairly well documented.

Although the number of cat species is small compared to, say, rodents or snakes, there is still a considerable number of different cats in both the Old and New Worlds, about forty or so in two main groupings, the Felinae or small cats and the Pantherinae or big cats.  The Felinae includes the domestic cat (Felis catus) and various small wildcats of the world while Pantherinae includes lions, tigers, pumas, jaguars and lynxes.  The relationship of the cheetah to both groups does not appear to be completely certain for various reasons. 

A feline skull is shorter than a canine skull, since felines rely less on scent and more on vision than canines.  This in turn generally means fewer teeth (usually a total of thirty in upper and lower jaws) than other mammalian carnivores.  Despite this apparent loss, the canine teeth in a cat are usually well developed in such a way as to rupture the spinal cord in the neck of an appropriately sized animal it can seize in its jaws.  The jaws have only limited movement for chewing but this does allow the specialised carnassial teeth to act as scissors when the cat is eating.  This limited jaw movement is the main reason why cats are often seen eating with the head tilted to one side and then the other.  Whatever the species, the skull of the cat (with the exception of the cheetah) follows a very similar shape.  Although some cats run down their prey at great speed, particularly the cheetah, most are stealth predators.  The markings on a cat’s coat, whether the spots on a lynx or stripes on a tiger, are disruptive camouflage to allow it to blend in with its surroundings.  The claws are used not only for attack but also in many species to assist in climbing.  In most species they can be retracted.  Socially almost all cats are loners.  Kittens or cubs remain with the mother for a length of time and gradually go their own way.  After this they normally only encounter one another deliberately for mating purposes.  Lions are the exception to this rule.  Like snakes, all cats are wholly predatory, are very successful hunters and have been alternatively admired, loved or feared by man down the ages.

European Wildcat (Felis silvestris)

It may surprise some people, but the European wildcat is widely distributed throughout the continent, from Iberia in the west as far as Denmark and Scotland in the north (though absent from the rest of the UK and Eire) and into eastern Europe and Russia, as well as Turkey and Central Asia as far as India and China.  It appears that in Europe at least they favour forested areas, although in Scotland they may choose rocky outcrops as dens due to the lack of tree cover in their remaining range.  In appearance this species is very much like a well-built domestic cat, but usually has a bushy and black-ringed tail and somewhat broader head.  Although it is found in many countries, its reclusive nature and the size of its territory (varying according to sources, but certainly large) means that it is not hugely abundant and certainly rarely seen.  Despite the popular reputation of wildcats as hissing, aggressive beasts, Felis silvestris will avoid contact with people or dogs.  The exception to this is a mother with her kittens, in which case predators can expect a fierce rebuff.

I have been unable to find much data on reproduction, but one source suggests that (perhaps unusually for cats) males may be monogamous, mating with the same female each year.  Mating normally occurs in March, at least in Scotland, and the gestation lasts two months, a litter of normally 2-4 young being born in May.  The degree of subsequent involvement by the male is unclear, for although he may bring food to the den the female may also drive him off.  Certainly it is the mother (as with most cats) who rears the young.  The young are born blind but can respond aggressively to disturbance by one week old even before their eyes open.  The eyes open by two weeks.  As with many cat species including tigers, the developing young gradually move more and more outside the den and develop their hunting skills by play and later from watching their mother.  By two months old they may accompany her, and by five months old they are independent and begin to leave the family unit.  The European wildcat is quite adaptable in terms of diet.  Various rodents are usually taken but rabbits may also feature as a prey item, depending on the range and seasonal availability.  The devastation of rabbit populations in Spain has affected the wildcat, while across its range it was until recently persecuted by humans for its supposed threats to gamebirds and lambs.  The longest term threat to the species however is hybridisation with the increasing numbers of domestic cats, often feral, to which it is so closely related.  Indeed, a 2007 scientific study suggests that all domestic cats are descended from a small group of this species in the Near East, about 9,500 years ago.

The Spanish or Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus)

Unlike the Brown Bear, the Spanish Lynx is endemic to Spain.   Once widespread across Iberia, it is now found in Doñana national park and the Sierra Morena. Until recently it was believed to be a subspecies of the Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx) but is now considered a separate species.  However, both coexisted in Central Europe during the Pleistocene.

Within the Felidae, the four lynx species are usually classified in their own genus (Lynx), but some authorities consider them instead to be members of Felis, the other smaller wild cats of the world.

In appearance lynx are somewhat reminiscent of the domestic cat, but with a rather more puma-like face and, most characteristically, ears that are elongated to a tufted point.  The tail is also quite stubby compared to the domestic or European wildcat.  The Spanish lynx is rather smaller than the Eurasian lynx and is easily distinguished by its heavily spotted coat.  Apart from hares and rabbits, Spanish Lynx will also prey on game birds, deer fawns and fish: perhaps unusually for a cat, it is a good swimmer.  Most activity is nocturnal.

Mating takes place in January and the young born about 9 weeks later.  Weaning takes place at about 5 months and the young separate from their mother at an indeterminate point but apparently 12-18 months after birth.  However the young do not breed until about 3-4 years of age.

Conservation

The Spanish Lynx is the most critically endangered feline in the world, with an adult population estimated at about 100 individuals across roughly the two sites in Spain.  This is not for want of trying, since hunting the lynx has been illegal in Spain since the 1970s and much money and effort has gone into an attempt to reverse the species’ decline.  The main culprits for the catastrophic fall in lynx numbers are habitat loss (a common factor in modern conservation) and the devastation of rabbit populations by first myxamotosis and then another viral disease, VHD.   The more adaptable fox, a similar-sized predator, also competes with the lynx, while road traffic and the use of snares to trap foxes have also damaged lynx populations.

Safety in the woods

It is worth emphasising that the reader is very unlikely to encounter either of these cats, because of their rarity, avoidance of humans or nocturnal activity.  Indeed encounters with lynx are to be discouraged because of their extreme plight - long range shots with a good telephoto lens are the best interaction, and sightings of lynx should be reported to conservation bodies who value such reports.  The practice of sterilising domestic cats that are not intended for breeding is to be encouraged, since it prevents not only unwanted kittens but also further hybridisation between the European Wildcat and the domestic cat.

Felines in human captivity

The keeping of wild cats in captivity is controversial and probably beyond the means of most private keepers, even when legal.  However, zoos appear to have made great advances in the keeping of these mammals.  For example, Howlett’s Zoo in Canterbury specialises in large cats, including lynx, and in March 2005 the Spanish succeeded in breeding a captive Iberian Lynx..

Acknowledgements

Apart from my zoology reference works, my thanks must go yet again to www.iberianature..com (IberiaNature, who have an excellent essay on the Iberian Lynx), and to David Alderton’s very readable Wild Cats of the World.  Any mistakes are my own.

Nick Smith   www.cyberlizard.plus.com   

email   cyberlizard@cyberlizard.plus.com

Copyright 2008

THE BEAR 

July 2008

Spain is home not only to a large number of creatures that British readers might find exotic, such as reptiles and scorpions, but also to a couple of larger mammals that may seem equally unusual, being only seen in the UK in zoological gardens.  In this issue I want to look at mammals in general and then the Eurasian Brown Bear. 

Mammals in general

Although mammals have been around since their descent from mammal-like reptiles for at least 200 million years, most remained the size of rodents or small cats during the age of dinosaurs.  Since during mass extinctions it appears to be large creatures that die out, the small size of mammals allowed them to survive the end of the Cretaceous and fill the gaps left by the “ruling reptiles”.

Mammals are distinguished from other vertebrate animals by several interesting features.  The most obvious is the hairy or furry covering of the body which helps to conserve heat, and which distinguishes most mammals at a glance from reptiles, amphibians, fish or birds.  The brain is also somewhat more developed in mammals.  The other important feature of mammals, shared with birds, is endothermy, or “warm-bloodedness”.  Simply put this means that the mammalian body maintains a constant internal body temperature under normal circumstances, whatever the conditions outside, unlike most other creatures which are dependent on their environment for their body temperature.  The only drawback to this is the large increase in food intake required.

All European mammals are placental mammals, that is they give birth to fully developed young from a womb, unlike egg-laying mammals (aka monotremes, such as platypus) or marsupial mammals (such as kangaroos) in which the young are born quite small and then crawl into the mother’s pouch where they develop.  Contrary to the picture some may have of mammals bursting fully developed into the post-dinosaur world, mammals have undergone a high degree of evolution in the last 65 million years, and the first true mammals certainly did not resemble their modern descendants, most of whom are quite recent species.

Bears

Bears are members of the Order Carnivora and are most closely related to dogs, mustelids (weasels and ferrets and their relatives) and raccoons.  There are eight species of true bear in the world, nearly all found in the northern hemisphere.  One species is found in South America, while bears are absent from Australia. Creatures such as koala bears are in fact not related to bears at all.  True bears belong to the Family Ursidae and include such well-known animals as the grizzly, the polar bear and the giant panda (although again the so-called red panda is not a bear either!).  Bears are distinguished by large heads and large, heavily built bodies and short strong limbs and short tails. They have small eyes and ears, the ears being erect and rounded.  The snout is usually long..  Of the senses, smell is highly developed but eyesight and hearing are much less so.  Each limb bears five digits and each digit has a non-retractile claw.  Unusually for Carnivora,  the bear’s gait is plantigrade, ie it walks on the soles of its feet rather than just on the toes as dogs and cats do.  This mode of walking, together with the non-retractile claws, leave prints that are easily recognisable.    Despite their occasional fierce reputation, bears are omnivorous rather than carnivorous like many of their relatives.  The exception is the polar bear which has evolved to prey mainly on seals and young walruses, although they will also take grass, berries and kelp.

The first bears appeared about 22 million years ago, and the familiar Ursus species began appearing 5 million years ago.  Even in that short time, some Ursus species died out, for example the cave bear Ursus spelaeus whose remains have been found in northern Spain.

Modern bears were known to Neanderthals and Homos sapiens and many tribes in both the Old and New World developed legends, myths and stories about them, from the old North American Indian tales to Goldilocks and the modern “teddy bear”..  Bears were widespread across much of their range even into the Middle Ages, but inevitably such large and potentially dangerous animals came into conflict with humans and were often hunted.  At the same time the human-ursine relationship has been somewhat complex, as envisaged by the popularity of the bear as a symbol (both Berlin and Zurich, for example, have the bear as their emblem) and the old practice (admittedly rather cruel) of having chained or dancing bears.  Sometimes the relationship appears to have been consensual.  In 1943 Polish troops in Iran adopted a brown bear they found in the mountains and trained him to carry mortar rounds.  “Voytek”, as he became known, served in the Italian campaign before being demobilised in 1947 and spending the rest of his life at Edinburgh Zoo, where he died in 1963.  During his time in the Polish Army he adopted human habits such as smoking and drinking beer, much as chimpanzees sometimes d

The Eurasian Brown bear

Brown bears, Ursos arctos, are found in both North American and Eurasia.  Many well-known bears are actually subspecies, or races, of this species: for example the Grizzly Bear is Ursos arctos horribilis, while the Eurasian Brown Bear is Ursos arctos arctos.  This is the bear found in a few parts of Spain.  They can be distinguished by the rather concave snout and the hump of muscle between the shoulders.  Brown bears do not climb trees, unlike their smaller relatives.  Despite their common name, Brown Bears are not always brown, the coloration varying between some individuals from light cream to black.  Brown bears are the second largest member of the bear family, standing at about 9ft high and weighing anything from nearly 300 to 860lb.  Clearly this makes them potentially quite formidable animals, but in fact about 80% of their diet is vegetable matter.  They are dietary generalists and so will avail themselves of whatever is available, including fruit (especially berries), acorns, ants and carrion.    Although essentially solitary, bears still need to reproduce.  Mating takes place in May-June, but implantation is delayed until October-November.  1-4 cubs are born January-March, being relatively tiny (average weight 12-24oz).  Cubs remain with their mother for 2-4 years: she will vigorously defend them against males who may try to kill them to bring the female into oestrus again.  The lifespan of a brown bear in the wild is believed to be 25-30 years.

Bears in Spain

Today there are two populations of brown bears in Spain.  The largest, containing under 200 bears, is found in the Cordillera Cantábrica, the mountainous area straddling the borders of Asturias, Cantabria and Castilla y León.  This is subdivided into two populations, the western and eastern.  An eminent Spanish biologist has suggested that the target total number of both should be several hundred to maintain a viable population.  The genetics of the Cantabrian Brown Bear, as it is known, are considered somewhat distinct from other European brown bear populations, although it is not yet officially classified as a separate subspecies.  There are also a few remaining brown bears in the Pyrenees, a number of probably under 20.  The population is supposedly short of females, which must make its long term survival perilous.  In 2005 a report concluded that 9-11 bears inhabited the Central Pyrenees and periodically wandered into Catalonia.  The protection and reintroduction of brown bears has been a thorny subject.  The French government undertook to release 15 Slovenian bears in the Pyrenees, but opposition from some locals, including farmers who feared for their livestock, led to this number being dropped to 5 as part of a more gradual approach.  Despite a ban on bear hunting in Spain since 1973 (the current fine is now €300,000), three bears have been killed in the Pyrenees by hunters.  The main fears of residents are for livestock (which may occasionally be killed by bears) and beehives, which bears are known to raid.  For this reason there is a tradition of building an alveriza or cortines to protect beehives from bears, essentially a high circular stone wall.  Two of the main problems facing the bears are loss of forest cover and the EC directive of 2001 ordering all dead livestock to be destroyed rather than dumped in the countryside, a well-meaning law which nevertheless deprived much wildlife of carrion.  Illegal use of traps and snares is another hazard to bears.  The last resident bear in Galicia was killed in 1946, but Galicians are apparently keen to have the species back in their region.

King Juan Carlos is known as a keen bear hunter, a fact that has sometimes caused consternation.  In October 2004 he shot 9 bears in Romania, and in August 2006 Russian regional authorities alleged he shot a bear during a private trip to the country, an allegation denied by his office.

Safety in the woods

It is worth emphasising that the reader is very unlikely to encounter either of these animals, both because of their extreme scarcity and also because of their avoidance of humans.  It is a paradox of nature that much smaller creatures appear far more common around human dwellings than much larger ones.

A writer on bears suggested that the best way in bear territory to avoid trouble was to proceed making a reasonable amount of noise, eg rustling the undergrowth.  This gives the bear warning that someone is in the vicinity.  It is when a bear is surprised that it is apparently most dangerous.  As with many animals, bears can also be discouraged from unnecessary or harmful contact with humans simply by people not leaving food, even rubbish, out when camping or trekking.  Bears are largely nocturnal, but may be out and about by daylight.  It is probably unwise to approach a bear too closely, especially a mother bear with cubs!

Acknowledgements

Apart from my zoology reference works, my thanks must go to www.iberianature.com (IberiaNature) who carry a regular news update on Spanish bears, and FAPAS (http://www.fapas.es/ingles/fapasenglish.htm), the Fund for the Protection of Wild Animals.

Nick Smith   www.cyberlizard.plus.com   

email   cyberlizard@cyberlizard.plus.com

Copyright 2008

JELLYFISH  They’re not fish, and definitely not made of jelly!!

May 2008

“Jellyfish” is the common name given to a group of animals that resemble the silk canopy of an old-fashioned parachute with tentacles dangling down around the edges.  Swimmers around many coasts of the world encounter them sometimes, and off Australia the small box jellyfish are rightly feared.  Off Spain’s coast they may also be encountered.  But what exactly are these strange creatures?

The zoology of the jellyfish - Despite the common name, jellyfish are not fish at all but part of a much older group of animals called Cnidaria or coelenterates, going back to the dawn of life on earth and turning up as fossils as early as the Cambrian era 500 million years ago.  They and their close relatives, the sea anenomes, corals and hydras, belong to a huge group called the Radiata, so called because their symmetry is “radial”, ie round, rather than the “bilateral” symmetry of most other creatures (ie it is difficult to talk about the distinct “sides” of a jellyfish in the same way that one can with, for example, insects, lizards or people).  Without getting too technical, it should be noted that the Radiata differ fundamentally from other animals (except the sponges) in another important way.  Whereas the other animals have three layers to the body - the epidermis, mesoderm and gastroderm - the Radiata only have two, the mesoderm being absent and replaced by a rather thick substance called the mesoglea.  Although a few cells may intersperse the mesoglea, basically it is a non-living gelatinous substance.  Most of the life support systems that we take for granted are absent or very primitive in jellyfish.  The mouth is located in the centre of the underneath of the “bell” and opens into a gastrovascular cavity which in turn opens into canal systems for internal distribution after food is digested.  However an anus is lacking and indigestible residues are ejected via the mouth..  There is no respiratory system.  The nervous system is fairly rudimentary, being a “nerve net” rather than the central nervous system of vertebrates.  Such “eyes” as they possess are fairly elementary light-sensitive ocelli (or spots).  An exception to this rule is the cubozoid group of jellyfish (including the box jellyfish) which have a rather vertebrate-like eye on each corner of the body.  Jellyfish do however possess statocysts, a cells containing hairlike structures and a small grain of solid calcium carbonate: the movement of this grain against the “hairs” allows the jellyfish to orientate their own direction.  Although capable of some motion and of creating a current by contractions of the bell, most jellyfish have only limited self-propulsion and are mainly carried by tides and currents.

The stinging mechanism - Jellyfish sting by means of nematocysts.   These small organs are unique to cnidarians and are basically fluid-filled capsules containing a sort of thread held under high pressure.  A trigger caused by the proximity of prey causes the nematocyst to flood with water from outside, everting the thread like a glove finger.  Different jellyfish species may have one or several types of nematocyst.  The basic kinds are glutinants, which stick to the body of the prey, volvents, which wrap around bristles on the body of a prey, and penetrants that inject toxin into the prey.  Regardless of the type, once everted the nematocyst cannot be reused.  The whole thing is shed and a new one regenerated.

Life cycle - The life cycle of jellyfish varies according to the species but typically goes through a two stage cycle.  The male medusa (the jellyfish form with the bell) fertilises a female who then produces an egg that becomes a planula.  This form settles on a fixed surface and becomes a scyphistoma, an intermediate stage that changes until it resembles something like a stack of Pringles.  These “Pringles” (ephyrae) then float off one by one, a process called strobilation, and swim off to mature into jellyfish.

Where do jellyfish live? - Jellyfish are found in marine waters across the entire world, from the tropics to the polar regions and from coastal waters to the deep ocean.  At least one species has adapted to living in mangrove swamps and using the algae accumulated in its mesoglea to live off photosynthesis like a plant, greatly reducing its need to feed off animal prey.

What do jellyfish live on? - Most jellyfish prey on other marine creatures including, but not limited to, fish and shrimp.  In their turn jellyfish, despite their apparently impressive venom weapons, are preyed upon by other creatures including Leatherback Turtles which regularly follow swarms of jellyfish across the ocean, and the very large ocean sunfish.  In both cases the predator has to consume a large amount of “jellies” since their nutritional value is not high.  In some parts of the world jellyfish are also looked on unfavourably by fishermen and destroyed if caught, although it seems that large-scale culling of the creatures only drives the remaining jellyfish to a greater frenzy of reproduction.

Are jellyfish dangerous? - As with snakes, it is hard to make generalisations about jellyfish, but as a rule most jellyfish are not dangerous to man.  However many stings are painful and some are also seriously venomous.  The cubozoid group of jellyfish is especially dangerous since their venom has been known to kill a human adult in about three minutes.  In European waters however these particular jellyfish are absent.  For the Portuguese man o’war, see next section.  The other practical problem for a swimmer who finds themselves amidst jellyfish is how to steer clear of the jellyfish without touching their highly trigger-sensitive tentacles.

Nick Smith   www.cyberlizard.plus.com   

email   cyberlizard@cyberlizard.plus.com

Copyright 2008

SCORPIONS OF SPAIN

May 2008

If there is one group of animals more detested in the popular mind than snakes, it is scorpions.  In fact many people have a dislike and fear of all arachnids, that group that includes spiders, scorpions and their relatives.  We all know people who are arachnophobic, ie have a gut and often instinctive fear of spiders.  To the average Brit, the fear factor may be increased because unlike spiders, scorpions are rarely ever seen in the UK, and if they are they are usually safely contained within a cage in the zoo or pet shop.  In Spain and other more exotic climes, however, scorpions live in the wild.

Are scorpions really dangerous?

Actually no - the vast majority are not life-threatening to humans.  Of well over a thousand species, only about 25-30 or so have venom that would constitute a medical emergency.  This is not to say that you should ignore a sting or fool around with them, especially if you do not know which species you are dealing with. 

What exactly is a scorpion?

Scorpions are members of the Class Arachnida, a large group that includes spiders, whipscorpions, mites, ticks and daddy longlegs or harvestmen. Like spiders they have eight legs, but unlike spiders have two claws and a telson (tail) with a stinging barb at the tip.  They have eight small eyes, two on the top of the body on three on either side, but these are rather rudimentary and only detect changes in light, or motion.  Scorpions rely also on the hair-like structures underneath the pedipalps (claws) that brush the ground and can detect vibration.  Most scorpion species are solitary animals, at least outside the breeding season: however, some are tolerant of others of their kind, whereas others will kill and devour other scorpions if possible.  Surprisingly however, female scorpions show parental care for the first few weeks of the young scorpions’ lives, carrying the young on her back.  The young are born live, unlike spiders which lay eggs.  Courtship in scorpions is interesting as the mating partners perform a "promenade à deux" dance before the male lays a packet of sperm for the female to take up.  Scorpions are also old in terms of the history of life on earth.  Fossils have been found dating 425-450 million years old.  However the prehistoric so-called "sea scorpions" (giant marine predators) are not true scorpions as such.

Where do scorpions live?

Scorpions are sometimes roughly divided into two categories: those that live in relatively temperate or humid environments (forests and similar), and those who live in very arid areas (deserts, sierras and the like).  Within these environments, however, they are most likely to be found under stones or logs, or in burrows often dug by other creatures.  Some live among rocks or occasionally in vegetation.  Some creatures tolerate scorpions sharing their burrows, as having a stinging housemate as a defence against intrusion from outside can be a definite advantage.  For example, in North Africa a scorpion may share a burrow with the relatively large Uromastyx lizards: these lizards are too big to be bothered by the scorpion, the scorpion gets a place to live and the lizard gets a potential bouncer to keep troublemakers out (not least human hands, as locals like to use the lizards for various purposes).

What do scorpions live on?

Scorpions prey largely on other invertebrates but may occasionally take small vertebrates such as very young and small lizards or mice.  Being cold-blooded, they need to eat only rarely - in fact in captivity, overeating is more of a danger than hunger.  It is important to realise that these are often very inactive creatures, spending 95% of their lives just sitting in their burrows.

Why do scorpions sting?

The sting is carried for two purposes.  In all scorpions it can be used as defence, particularly against larger predators.  Additionally some scorpions that lack heavy claws (the so-called pedipalps) use the sting to kill or immobilise prey.  If a species has very thin claws, it is often a sign that it has relatively powerful venom.

Buthus occitanus, the Mediterranean Yellow Scorpion

Found in Spain and southern France: other subspecies are found in North Africa and the Sinai desert.  In terms of discomfort and potential danger to human beings this is probably the most important scorpion found in Spain.  As with Spanish snakes, the venom is unlikely to kill an adult but a full "hit" can be painful, and the risk to a child, elderly or immunocompromised person should not be underestimated.

B. occitanus is 1-2 inches in length.  Its overall colour is yellow to dark brown, and there are narrow dark bands on the edges of the telson.

In 2004 two more species were described from Spain, Buthus ibericus and Buthus montanus.  I do not have any information on these species but imagine they would be similar to B. occitanus.

Other Spanish scorpions

Euscorpius flavicaudis is found in North Africa, Spain, Italy and France, and interestingly has been accidentally introduced into a couple of local areas in the UK.  In Spain it is found in the more northern, wetter areas.  Their small size (3½-4½cm) allows them to get into houses, but all members of this genus have weak venom and are not considered dangerous to man.  Euscorpius carpathicus is similar in size.  Euscorpius balearicus is endemic to the Balearic Islands only. 

Belisarius xambeui is found in the southeastern Pyrenees.  It is unlikely to be seen by the casual walker as it is a cave dweller.  In common with certain other creatures that live only in caves, it lacks eyes and pigment.  The venom is believed to be harmless.

Spanish territory has also had two introductions, both from the US and with somewhat more potent venom than the last four species: Isometrus maculatus, the Lesser Brown Scorpion, on the Atlantic coast, and Centruroides gracilis, the Florida Bark Scorpion, in the Canaries.

What is the best way of handling scorpions?

As a rule scorpions should not be handled.  It is harder to for a non-expert in my opinion to tell scorpions apart than to distinguish between snakes, not least because scorpions are so much smaller.

Nevertheless there may be times when you wish to move a scorpion.  Although I am reluctant to condone the killing of wild animals, there may be times when a situation appears sufficiently dangerous (particularly if a child is involved) to justify this measure.  Normally however scorpions have no interest in humans, and most stings occur because people accidentally tread barefoot on a scorpion or else physically contact it, deliberately or otherwise.  Keepers of scorpions often use a pair of tongs, usually with pads on the ends, to pick the scorpion up by its tail (telson).  This has the benefits of rendering the scorpion helpless "in transit" and keeping the stinging bulb in a secure grip so that it cannot be wielded.  Obviously you should also make sure that the scorpion cannot somehow latch on to you at the same time, since this would cause a struggle and be distracting.  The animal can then be dropped into a secure container and carried away for release at a suitable site.  I am uncertain about the climbing abilities of scorpions so one should take great care that the scorpion cannot climb into a position (eg within a sack) where it can wield its sting, even if only accidentally.

Other considerations

As with snakes, never underestimate the speed of scorpions.  Some species are slow, lethargic or disinterested, but some are quite fast and occasionally aggressive if they feel threatened. 

If walking in an area and you are unsure as to the presence of scorpions, or simply want to be cautious, then a good idea is to wear boots and keep the legs covered.  This incidentally is a good idea in many warm parts of the world.

Soldiers who have served in North Africa or the Middle East often relate how they got into the routine of shaking their shoes or boots out in the morning in case anything had climbed into them in the night, and if you are worried that you may be living in an area where scorpions are found, then this is a sensible precaution and may also put your mind at rest.

Scorpions as pets

It may surprise some, but scorpions do have their admirers and are kept in captivity.  However, they are definitely display animals only and emphatically not pets to be handled.  This is not only because of the venom but because the scorpions themselves are by nature not creatures that will interact with an owner in the same way that a domestic pet (even a snake) will. Also, some scorpion species are simply unsuitable as pets for reasons of venom or unpredictable behaviour, or both.  Scorpions kept in captivity are normally selected species bred or imported from other countries.

Anyone wishing to look into the subject should first read one of the books by Ann Webb, Philippe de Vosjoli or the Barron's pet series, all of which will guide the interested reader as to setting up the vivarium correctly and (most importantly) on suitable species.  For a look at the dangerous species from a medical viewpoint, de Vosjoli recommends Scorpions of Medical Importance by H L Keegan. 

Two good websites on scorpions are The Scorpion Files at http://www.ub.ntnu.no/scorpion-files/index.htm and The Scorpion Fauna at http://pagesperso-orange.fr/eycb/scorpions/index.htm.  Both of these provided useful information for this article.

Nick Smith   www.cyberlizard.plus.com   

email   cyberlizard@cyberlizard.plus.com

Copyright 2008

SPANISH FROGS & TOADS 3

April 2008

In last month's magazine we looked at some of the frogs and toads found in Spain, many of which were the same as or similar to ones found in the UK.  This month I want to focus on the more unusual ones you may come across in the wild or even your own garden.

Midwife Toads

These "toads" are not true toads but belong to a different family, the Discoglossidae or "round tongues".  This family is distinguished among other things for not having the usual extensible amphibian tongue, and hence catch their prey instead by simply grabbing at it with the mouth.  Unlike more recent frog species, members of the family also have true ribs. Many of the members of this family are found in Iberia.  The Midwife Toads, all Alytes species, derive their common name from the male's habit of carrying the fertilised eggs in a string wrapped around his legs.  Should he sense that the eggs are becoming too dry, he may dip them into water for a while.  Needless to say the number of eggs is limited by the need to carry them (to about 50-80, in fact), but on the other end the parental care pays off as the male places the eggs in a body of water just before they hatch, thus granting them a degree of protection not available to unattended eggs.  The tadpoles may measure up to 9cm but become smaller on metamorphosis.  In general appearance the various species are 3½-5½cm in length with a lozenge-shaped eye pupil.  They are found in most parts of Spain.  The following table summarises them:

There are different races, or subspecies, of Alytes obstetricans.  Of these, the one most likely to be seen in the Murcia area is probably the pertinax subspecies, which may lack the grey markings on the throat.  The boscai subspecies found in N & W Spain and Portugal lacks warts and is rather more whitish.  The subspecies almogavarii is found in NE Spain and is brownish or yellowish with a "marbled" pattern of green or brown spots.  maurus is the subspecies found in the mountains of Morocco.  There is some interesting history to the Majorcan Midwife Toad.  Until 1977 fossils had led scientists to believe that midwife toads on the island had died out.  Then living tadpoles and finally adults were found.  The species is still threatened in the wild and a conservation area has been set aside for it: in addition it has been bred in zoos.

Painted Frogs - The differences in appearance are rather slight, and in fact the species were originally differentiated on the basis of genetics in the laboratory.  Two other species are found in Sardinia and Corsica respectively

Spadefoot Toads - These rather plump-looking anurans are not true toads but belong to a different family, the Pelobatidae.  Their common name is derived from the enlarged tubercle on the inside of the foot which helps them to dig themselves into the earth, usually loose sand or soil.  Rather than digging as a dog might dig for a bone, Spadefoots actually dig backwards with great speed until they are concealed below ground at depths of up to 1m.  The Spadefoots are confined to Europe, although there is a similar group of animals in North America.  Of the three members of the family, one species is found in Western Europe, one in the Balkans and one in the Middle East.  The Western Spadefoot Pelobates cultripes is found in Spain.  The coloration and pattern are variable, usually yellowish, greyish or whitish and with dark brown or green blotches or other markings, but one unfailing feature that distinguishes the species is the "spade" on the foot, which is always black.  The eyes are rather prominent, with a vertical pupil rather like a cat's in bright light, and the iris is silvery gold or greenish.  Spadefoots can grow up to 11cm. Outside of the breeding season they are nocturnal, hiding in the burrows by day.  In the breeding season they may appear by day.  Although females apparently produce eggs only once a year, they make up for this by laying up to 7,000 in thick bands up to 100cm that smell of fish.  The tadpoles are quite large, from 10 to 17½cm, and take 4-6 weeks to develop.  Losses may occur due to the breeding waters drying out before the tadpoles can metamorphose in time: on the other hand they will tolerate a degree of brackishness.  The Western Spadefoot is found around most of Spain and especially in Portugal.

Parsley Frogs - The Parsley Frogs, of which there are just 3 species, are believed to be an old lineage now widely separated and "hanging on" in their small areas.  They belong to the family Pelodytidae which is closely related to the Spadefoots.  The common name arises from the frog's appearance, which is reminiscent to some of an object "garnished" with green parsley.  The eyes are prominent with a vertical pupil, as in the Spadefoots, but the head is rather flatter than that of the Western Spadefoot, and Parsley Frogs are also considerably smaller, reaching a maximum of 5cm.    Overall coloration is pale greyish, yellowish, buff or light olive above, with the "parsley" pattern of dark olive to bright green spots.  Males develop blue-violet throats in the breeding season.  Unlike Spadefoots, Parsley Frogs may breed more than once a season but produce far fewer eggs, up to 1,600 a season.  Development is also slow, up to 3 months in the south of Spain but up to 7-8 elsewhere.  There are two species, the Parsley Frog (Pelodytes punctatus) of N and E Spain and the Iberian Parsley Frog (Pelodytes ibericus) of S and W Spain and Portugal: however, the only obvious difference between them is the shape of the tubercles on the palm of the hand, which are more conical in the Iberian Parsley Frog: in size this species is also somewhat smaller (up to 4cm) with a slightly wider head.  Although not tree frogs, Parsley Frogs may climb up into vegetation such as bushes, or sit on stones or rocks.  They are nocturnal.

Tree Frogs - For most Britons the idea of a frog climbing a tree may raise some mental incredulity, but in fact tree frogs are widely spread throughout the world, particularly in the tropics.  European tree frogs are members of the huge Hyla genus and tend to be on the small side, certainly much smaller than their pond-dwelling relatives or toads.  Apart from climbing trees, these small but rather attractive creatures may cling on to tall plants or even individual stems.  Apart from the fact that a frog in a tree or on other vegetation is most likely a Hyla species, the tree frogs are also easily identifiable by the sticky discs on the end of their fingers, these being used to adhere to the surfaces being climbed.  Coloration can be very variable since an individual may somewhat change colour depending on temperature.  In overall appearance they are small plump frogs with smooth skin, long hind legs and horizontal eye pupils.  There are two species of Hyla found on the Iberian peninsula:

Unlike most of the frogs and toads in this article, these little frogs may sometimes be seen by day in the shelter of vegetation or even enjoying the direct sun for a while.  For such small creatures, the males have a surprisingly loud call, measured at up to 87 decibels: this has been likened to the quacking of ducks and is achieved by the inflatable sac under the male's throat.  Interestingly, males can be stimulated to call by man-made noises such as passing aircraft or even certain passages from string quartets (see the Collins Field Guide by E N Arnold).  This article for now concludes a round-up of the reptiles and amphibians of Spain.  I hope that readers have enjoyed it or at least found interesting, and that for some people it has made these often-maligned creatures a bit less mysterious or threatening.  In future articles I will still describe the occasional reptile or amphibian in more detail, as well as looking at other creatures found in this part of the world.

Nick Smith   www.cyberlizard.plus.com   

email   cyberlizard@cyberlizard.plus.com

Copyright 2008

SPANISH FROGS & TOADS

March 2008

In last month's magazine we looked at frogs and toads, or anurans, in general.  This month I want to focus on those found in Spain.

How do we tell them apart?

There are several things to look out for when trying to identify a frog and toad, even before you pick it up (which I realise many people will be reluctant to do).  Firstly, look at its general appearance.  Is the skin rough and perhaps warty, or is it smooth?  What colour is it and is are there any distinguishing marks, such as a black "mask" (stripe) running across the eyes?  What shape are the pupils of the eye - round, vertically elliptical or even heart-shaped?  Look at the head behind the eye.  Is there a very conspicuous round disk?  This is the tympanum, essentially the ear, very obvious in some species but hidden in others.  Look at the head above and behind the eye: is there a ridge with small porous openings?  If so, this is the parotoid glands (one such ridge above and behind each eye), normally found in toads but not in frogs.  How does the frog or toad move - does it walk along, or does it hop?  Finally, what sort of habitat is it in?  If it is sitting in water or reeds or similar, it is most likely a frog.  An anuran a long way from water may be a toad.  If it is sitting below or burrowing into loose sand or soil, then you have probably found a Spadefoot Toad (see below).  There are further details that can be picked up on closer examination of the animal, although not many without the help of measuring instruments or good eyesight, and I would discourage the casual picking up of amphibians because contact between human and amphibian skin can be mutually uncomfortable.  Remember, tell children to always wash their hands thoroughly after handling a frog or toad because of the chemicals in the skin.  A look at the underneath of the anuran hands and feet at certain times of year may show small calloused pads on the palms - if so, then the animal is a male in breeding season.  A look at the underbelly will give the coloration, although colour can be quite variable in some animals and hence not always a guide.  Among a group of frogs or toads of the same species, the larger ones will usually be the females.  Identifying which species a tadpole belongs to is a whole different ball game, somewhat complicated and beyond the scope of this article.  Now let's have a look at the different frogs and toads found on the Iberian peninsula.

The Common Toad and its relatives

"True" toads belong to the Family Bufonidae and are found worldwide, being absent only from polar regions and remote oceanic islands.  They are among the most successful anurans despite their rather unglamorous image.  The Common Toad Bufo bufo is one of the most widely distributed vertebrates on earth, being found in a continuous range from Western Europe (excluding Ireland) to beyond the Ural mountains in the east.  It is also found across Spain and Portugal but is most common in Portugal and north, west and southern Spain, being scarce in the mountainous interior.  In appearance it is hard to mistake this anuran for anything else - it is a largish animal (up to 15cm/6") with a characteristic rough warty skin and parotoid glands above the eyes.  If it feels threatened, the toad will secrete a milky white substance, bufotoxin, from these glands - the substance tastes unpleasant to predators.  Overall coloration may be a dull green or muddy brown, and the eye often a copper colour.  Its gait tends to be a walk rather than a hop or jump.  Another interesting defensive behaviour is the toad's attempt to make itself look bigger by assuming an arched posture: this may convince a snake, for example, that the toad is simply too big to be swallowed.  The Common Toad is a hardy animal, living up to 10 years in the wild with a record of 36 years in captivity.  There are two other Bufo species found in Spain.  The Natterjack, Bufo calamita, is considered rare and threatened in the UK, but less so in Iberia.  It is smaller than the Common Toad, about 7-10cm, and the parotoid glands above the eyes are straighter whereas those on the Common Toad bend inward in the middle.  Coloration is brown, green or greyish, usually with somewhat darker patches on the body.  Although in many parts of its range the Natterjack has a yellowish stripe down its back, this is often lacking in Iberian animals.  The run of the Natterjack is also rather different, being likened to the scurrying of a mouse rather than a walk or hop.  It is found in roughly the same parts of Spain and Portugal as the Common Toad, and in some areas interbreeds with it. The Green Toad, Bufo viridis, is similar in appearance to the Natterjack but the dark and light pattern is more clearly defined, especially in females.  It is found only on the Balearic Islands, where it is believed to have been introduced in the Bronze Age.  All the Bufo species are prolific egglayers, laying up to several thousand eggs in long strings.

Pond or Water Frogs

Probably everyone in the UK has seen the Common Frog, Rana temporaria, at some point.  This frog and its relatives are widespread throughout Europe and are probably what most people think of as a typical frog.  Nevertheless to the observer in the wild they can be hard to tell apart at first glance, so often area is as much a guide as appearance.  The most widespread Spanish frog is the Iberian Water Frog, Rana perezi.  Like most of the water frogs it can be brown, grey or green, with a pattern of darker brown or black spots and often a light stripe down the back.  The underside is whitish but may have a grey "net" pattern.  Green animals may have brown dorsolateral folds (the folds where the sides join the back).  In build it is rather slender with a pointed snout and grows up to 10cm.  This species is the most widespread of the Rana frogs in Spain and Portugal, helped by its ability to settle anywhere, from rivers and lakes to ditches and even cattle troughs.  The breeding season of the Iberian Water Frog is longer than some frogs, allowing the female to lay anything from 800 to 10,000 eggs a season..  Like their parents the tadpoles are tough, being able to survive high temperatures and low oxygen levels, and faced with the possible drying up of their pool will metamorphose more quickly, although at the cost of emerging as smaller froglets.  Linked with this species is Graf's Hybrid Frog, R. kl. grafi.  The kl. in the scientific name stands for "klepton", meaning thief.  This is because the species is the hybrid offspring of two other, different, species, and "steals" chromosomes from one or both parents. In Spain the Graf's Hybrid survives by interbreeding with the Iberian Water Frog, which it largely resembles apart from being somewhat larger (11cm) and with more webbing on the feet.  In Iberia it is found only in NE Spain.  The Common Frog in Spain is only found in the Pyrenees and the northwest.  The northwestern populations belong to the race or subspecies known as parvipalmata and are somewhat smaller than British specimens, with reduced webbing on the feet.  In shape this frog is quite robust, reaching a maximum of 11cm: old individuals tend to have rounded snouts.  Coloration is quite varied, with even albino specimens being known as well as the "orange frog" phenomenon, but the back is often covered with black spots and the underside may also have a marbling or spotted effect.  The so-called "black mask", a black stripe running across the eyes, is also common.  One thing that does distinguish the Common Frog is its typanum, which is quite distinct.  It is quite hardy, being found in virtually any area with moisture, including heights of up to 3,000m in the Pyrenees.  Breeding may take place even if frost or ice is present, and indeed eggs may be laid in pools left by melting snow.  Up to 4,000 may be laid per female.  In the Pyrenees themselves lives the Pyrenean Frog, Rana pyrenaica, close to mountain streams.  It is found in the same areas as the Common Frog but is much smaller, reaching about 5cm.  To confuse things further, the Iberian Frog (as opposed to Iberian Water Frog!) Rana iberica lives in NW Spain, N Portugal and a few areas of western Spain.  The Agile Frog R. dalmatina is also found at the southern limit of its range in an isolated area of N Spain.  Another inhabitant of northern Spain is one of Europe's largest frogs, Rana ridibunda, the Marsh Frog, which reaches a maximum of 17cm.  It is found mostly in lowland areas and favours slow moving rivers or ponds.  The species is very widespread elsewhere in Europe and has been accused of pushing out its close relative the Pool Frog.  It is also one of the "parent" species of some of the hybrids.  In appearance it is often brown with darker spots and some green on the back.  Individuals often seem to group in whole colonies, sometimes reaching up to 2000 frogs per hectare, and the species is also known for its extended calling season and the variety of its chorus (which may or may not be a blessing, depending on how much you like the sound of lots of frogs).  Lastly one should mention an alien species, the American Bullfrog Rana catesbiana.  This frog was originally introduced into Europe as a food species but unfortunately has gone on to establish itself in the wild in a few parts of the continent, including a small area of central Spain.  The problem is that due to its greater size (up to 20cm, one of the largest frogs in the world) the Bullfrog can directly overwhelm native wildlife and out-compete native frogs for resources.  Fortunately it does not appear to be too widespread on the peninsula.  The Bullfrog is instantly recognisable by its large size, green coloration and (if calling) its booming voice.

Nick Smith   www.cyberlizard.plus.com   

email   cyberlizard@cyberlizard.plus.com